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In this article, I briefly describe the type of immune responses of our intestines. Intestine and pathogens Our intestinal immune system responses to specific pathogens reveal extra complexities. There are many bacteria and worms causing diseases in our bodies. Our immune system shows different types of responses to worms and bacteria. Bacteria get a type … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly describe how the intestinal immune system recognizes and responds to pathogens. Intestine and pathogens Most organisms that live in harmony with us are not harmful and help create a tolerant environment in the intestines. The gut immune system ensures a safe separation between the epithelial surfaces and even the beneficial … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly describe how various innate and adaptive cell types promote immune homeostasis in the intestine. Our gastrointestinal tract It is a tube-like structure running from the mouth to the anus. The gastrointestinal tract maintains our commensal microbiome and regulates local and systemic immune responses. Our gastrointestinal tract deals with billions of … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly explain the disparity in immunity in small and large intestines. Distinct immunity in small and large intestine The small and large intestines manage their relationship with the microbiome by sharing general strategies. However, the physiology of each section is distinct, as are the microbial communities and immune cells that inhabit … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly describe the negative regulation of B-cell activation. B-cell activation and control Presentation of antigens via MHC and receiving co-stimulatory signals (CD40-CD40L) from TH2 cells, results in the activation of B cells (figure 1). Following activation, B cells undergo cycles of mutation and selection to produce high-affinity memory B cells and … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly explain clonal anergy and its relation with a costimulatory signal. Clonal anergy A state of clonal anergy develops, when a naïve T cell engages its TCR with an antigen presented by an MHC, without a suitable costimulatory signal. It is a state, where the specific T cell clone shows no … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly describe the working of the coinhibitory receptors CTLA-4, PD-1, and BTLA. Coinhibitory receptor Costimulatory and coinhibitory receptor molecules are vital in regulating immune responses to infections. Coinhibitory receptors bind with their ligands and suppress excess immune responses. When T cells get infected, they tend to express coinhibitory receptors and acquire … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly describe costimulatory receptors CD28 and ICOS and how they bind with their ligands. Costimulatory receptors Co-stimulatory signals are required for optimal T-cell activation. T-cell non-responsiveness arises from high affinity TCR-MHC interactions in the absence of functional antigen presenting cells (APCs). It is called T cell anergy. The interaction between specific … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly describe complement fixation, which is an antigen-antibody interaction. Antigen-antibody interaction The antigen-antibody interaction is a bimolecular association. This does not lead to an irreversible chemical alteration in either the antibody or the antigen. This association involves many non-covalent interactions between the antigenic determinant (epitope) of the antigen and the variable-region … Read more >>
In this article, I briefly describe the method of immunofluorescence, which is an antigen-antibody interaction. Antigen-antibody interaction The Interaction between antigen and antibody is a bimolecular association, which does not lead to an irreversible chemical alteration in either the antibody or the antigen. The antigen-antibody association involves many non-covalent interactions between the antigenic determinant (epitope) … Read more >>